Computer Systems Fundamentals

#include <stdio.h>

int g = 10; //global variable: data section on memory

void f(int x);

int main(void){
    int i = 10;             // local variable stack
    char v[] = "Hello";     // v is a local variable on the stack of size 6 bytes                          
    char *s = "Hello";	    // s is a local variable on the stack
    			            // that points to constant read only string in the data section	       
    int *n = malloc(10);    // n is a locat variable on the stack
                            // that points to a chunk of malloced memory on the heap

    return 0;
}
1) convert 1101 from binary to decimal
1101 = 1*2^3 + 1*2^2 + 1*2^0 = 8+4+1 = 13

2) convert 29 from decimal to binary

29/2 = 14 R 1
14/2 = 7  R 0
 7/2 = 3  R 1
 3/2 = 1  R 1
 1/2 = 0  R 1

 Answer = 11101

3) Convert 1011 1110 0010 1001 from binary to hex
             B   E     2    9

4) Convert 1CED from hex to binary  
    0001 1100 1110 1101

Remember in Hex:
A 10
B 11
C 12
D 13
E 14
F 15
#include <stdio.h>

int main(void){
  
    unsigned int a = 938271;        //decimal                          
    unsigned int b = 0xAF12;        //hexadecimal
    unsigned int c = 0b00101010;    //binary may not work with all compilers
    unsigned int d = 0123;          //0 octal                 
    
    printf("%u %u %u %u\n",a,b,c,d); //printing in decimal
    printf("%X %X %X %X\n",a,b,c,d); //printing in hex
    printf("%o %o %o %o\n",a,b,c,d); //printing in octal
    
    return 0;
}


Print size and min and max values of integer types
#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>

int main(void) {

    char c;
    signed char sc;
    unsigned char uc;
    short s;
    unsigned short us;
    int i;
    unsigned int ui;
    long l;
    unsigned long ul;
    long long ll;
    unsigned long long ull;

    printf("%18s %5s %4s\n", "Type", "Bytes", "Bits");

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "char",               sizeof c,   8 * sizeof c);

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "signed char",        sizeof sc,  8 * sizeof sc);
    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "unsigned char",      sizeof uc,  8 * sizeof uc);

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "short",              sizeof s,   8 * sizeof s);
    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "unsigned short",     sizeof us,  8 * sizeof us);

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "int",                sizeof i,   8 * sizeof i);
    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "unsigned int",       sizeof ui,  8 * sizeof ui);

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "long",               sizeof l,   8 * sizeof l);
    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "unsigned long",      sizeof ul,  8 * sizeof ul);

    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "long long",          sizeof ll,  8 * sizeof ll);
    printf("%18s %5lu %4lu\n", "unsigned long long", sizeof ull, 8 * sizeof ull);

    printf("\n");

    printf("%18s %20s %20s\n", "Type", "Min", "Max");

#ifdef __CHAR_UNSIGNED__
    printf("%18s %20hhu %20hhu\n", "char",               (char)CHAR_MIN,         (char)CHAR_MAX);
#else
    printf("%18s %20hhd %20hhd\n", "char",               (char)CHAR_MIN,         (char)CHAR_MAX);
#endif

    printf("%18s %20hhd %20hhd\n", "signed char",        (signed char)SCHAR_MIN, (signed char)SCHAR_MAX);
    printf("%18s %20hhu %20hhu\n", "unsigned char",      (unsigned char)0,       (unsigned char)UCHAR_MAX);

    printf("%18s %20hd %20hd\n",   "short",              (short)SHRT_MIN,        (short)SHRT_MAX);
    printf("%18s %20hu %20hu\n",   "unsigned short",     (unsigned short)0,      (unsigned short)USHRT_MAX);

    printf("%18s %20d %20d\n",     "int",                INT_MIN,                INT_MAX);
    printf("%18s %20u %20u\n",     "unsigned int",       (unsigned int)0,        UINT_MAX);

    printf("%18s %20ld %20ld\n",   "long",               LONG_MIN,               LONG_MAX);
    printf("%18s %20lu %20lu\n",   "unsigned long",      (unsigned long)0,       ULONG_MAX);

    printf("%18s %20lld %20lld\n", "long long",          LLONG_MIN,              LLONG_MAX);
    printf("%18s %20llu %20llu\n", "unsigned long long", (unsigned long long)0,  ULLONG_MAX);

    return 0;
}

example declarations of the most commonly used fixed width integer types found in stdint.h
#include <stdint.h>

int main(void) {

                 // range of values for type
                 //             minimum               maximum
    int8_t   i1; //                 -128                  127
    uint8_t  i2; //                    0                  255
    int16_t  i3; //               -32768                32767
    uint16_t i4; //                    0                65535
    int32_t  i5; //          -2147483648           2147483647
    uint32_t i6; //                    0           4294967295
    int64_t  i7; // -9223372036854775808  9223372036854775807
    uint64_t i8; //                    0 18446744073709551615

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {

    // Common C bug:

    char c;  // c should be declared int   (int16_t would work, int is better)
    while ((c = getchar()) != EOF) {
        putchar(c);
    }

    // Typically `stdio.h` contains:
    // ```c
    // #define EOF -1
    // ```
    //
    // - most platforms: char is signed (-128..127)
    //   - loop will incorrectly exit for a byte containing 0xFF
    //
    // - rare platforms: char is unsigned (0..255)
    //   - loop will never exit

    return 0;
}
#include <stdio.h>
#include <limits.h>

//You need to compile and run with gcc! dcc will give a run time error
//due to the overflow

int main(void){
    //INT_MIN..INT_MAX
    int x = INT_MAX;
    printf("%d + 1 = ",x);
    x = x + 1;
    printf("%d\n",x);
    
    //0...UNINT_MAX
    unsigned y = UINT_MAX;
    printf("%u + 1 = ",y);
    y = y + 1;
    printf("%u\n",y);
    return 0;   
}
// header file so we use print_bits in several examples
#ifndef PRINT_BITS_H
#define PRINT_BITS_H

#include <stdint.h>
void print_bits(uint64_t value, int how_many_bits);

#endif
two useful functions that we will use in a number of following programs
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdint.h>

#include "print_bits.h"

// extract the nth bit from a value
int get_nth_bit(uint64_t value, int n) {
    // shift the bit right n bits
    // this leaves the n-th bit as the least significant bit
    uint64_t shifted_value = value >> n;

    // zero all bits except the the least significant bit
    int bit = shifted_value & 1;

    return bit;
}

// print the bottom how_many_bits bits of value
void print_bits(uint64_t value, int how_many_bits) {
    // print bits from most significant to least significant

    for (int i = how_many_bits - 1; i >= 0; i--) {
        int bit = get_nth_bit(value, i);
        printf("%d", bit);
    }
}

print the bits of an int, for example:
```
$ dcc print_bits_of_int.c print_bits.c -o print_bits_of_int
$ ./print_bits_of_int

Enter an int: 42 00000000000000000000000000101010 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: -42 11111111111111111111111111010110 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: 0 00000000000000000000000000000000 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: 1 00000000000000000000000000000001 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: -1 11111111111111111111111111111111 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: 2147483647 01111111111111111111111111111111 $ ./print_bits_of_int
Enter an int: -2147483648 10000000000000000000000000000000 $ ```

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdint.h>
#include "print_bits.h"

int main(void) {
    int a = 0;
    printf("Enter an int: ");
    scanf("%d", &a);

    // sizeof returns number of bytes, a byte has 8 bits
    int n_bits = 8 * sizeof a;

    print_bits(a, n_bits);
    printf("\n");

    return 0;
}

print the twos-complement representation of 8 bit signed integers essentially all modern machines represent integers in
```
$ dcc 8_bit_twos_complement.c print_bits.c -o 8_bit_twos_complement
$ ./8_bit_twos_complement
-128 10000000
-127 10000001
-126 10000010
-125 10000011
-124 10000100
-123 10000101
-122 10000110
-121 10000111
-120 10001000
-119 10001001
-118 10001010
-117 10001011
-116 10001100
-115 10001101
-114 10001110
-113 10001111
-112 10010000
-111 10010001
-110 10010010
-109 10010011
-108 10010100
-107 10010101
-106 10010110
-105 10010111
-104 10011000
-103 10011001
-102 10011010
-101 10011011
-100 10011100
 -99 10011101
 -98 10011110
 -97 10011111
 -96 10100000
 -95 10100001
 -94 10100010
 -93 10100011
 -92 10100100
 -91 10100101
 -90 10100110
 -89 10100111
 -88 10101000
 -87 10101001
 -86 10101010
 -85 10101011
 -84 10101100
 -83 10101101
 -82 10101110
 -81 10101111
 -80 10110000
 -79 10110001
 -78 10110010
 -77 10110011
 -76 10110100
 -75 10110101
 -74 10110110
 -73 10110111
 -72 10111000
 -71 10111001
 -70 10111010
 -69 10111011
 -68 10111100
 -67 10111101
 -66 10111110
 -65 10111111
 -64 11000000
 -63 11000001
 -62 11000010
 -61 11000011
 -60 11000100
 -59 11000101
 -58 11000110
 -57 11000111
 -56 11001000
 -55 11001001
 -54 11001010
 -53 11001011
 -52 11001100
 -51 11001101
 -50 11001110
 -49 11001111
 -48 11010000
 -47 11010001
 -46 11010010
 -45 11010011
 -44 11010100
 -43 11010101
 -42 11010110
 -41 11010111
 -40 11011000
 -39 11011001
 -38 11011010
 -37 11011011
 -36 11011100
 -35 11011101
 -34 11011110
 -33 11011111
 -32 11100000
 -31 11100001
 -30 11100010
 -29 11100011
 -28 11100100
 -27 11100101
 -26 11100110
 -25 11100111
 -24 11101000
 -23 11101001
 -22 11101010
 -21 11101011
 -20 11101100
 -19 11101101
 -18 11101110
 -17 11101111
 -16 11110000
 -15 11110001
 -14 11110010
 -13 11110011
 -12 11110100
 -11 11110101
 -10 11110110
  -9 11110111
  -8 11111000
  -7 11111001
  -6 11111010
  -5 11111011
  -4 11111100
  -3 11111101
  -2 11111110
  -1 11111111
   0 00000000
   1 00000001
   2 00000010
   3 00000011
   4 00000100
   5 00000101
   6 00000110
   7 00000111
   8 00001000
   9 00001001
  10 00001010
  11 00001011
  12 00001100
  13 00001101
  14 00001110
  15 00001111
  16 00010000
  17 00010001
  18 00010010
  19 00010011
  20 00010100
  21 00010101
  22 00010110
  23 00010111
  24 00011000
  25 00011001
  26 00011010
  27 00011011
  28 00011100
  29 00011101
  30 00011110
  31 00011111
  32 00100000
  33 00100001
  34 00100010
  35 00100011
  36 00100100
  37 00100101
  38 00100110
  39 00100111
  40 00101000
  41 00101001
  42 00101010
  43 00101011
  44 00101100
  45 00101101
  46 00101110
  47 00101111
  48 00110000
  49 00110001
  50 00110010
  51 00110011
  52 00110100
  53 00110101
  54 00110110
  55 00110111
  56 00111000
  57 00111001
  58 00111010
  59 00111011
  60 00111100
  61 00111101
  62 00111110
  63 00111111
  64 01000000
  65 01000001
  66 01000010
  67 01000011
  68 01000100
  69 01000101
  70 01000110
  71 01000111
  72 01001000
  73 01001001
  74 01001010
  75 01001011
  76 01001100
  77 01001101
  78 01001110
  79 01001111
  80 01010000
  81 01010001
  82 01010010
  83 01010011
  84 01010100
  85 01010101
  86 01010110
  87 01010111
  88 01011000
  89 01011001
  90 01011010
  91 01011011
  92 01011100
  93 01011101
  94 01011110
  95 01011111
  96 01100000
  97 01100001
  98 01100010
  99 01100011
 100 01100100
 101 01100101
 102 01100110
 103 01100111
 104 01101000
 105 01101001
 106 01101010
 107 01101011
 108 01101100
 109 01101101
 110 01101110
 111 01101111
 112 01110000
 113 01110001
 114 01110010
 115 01110011
 116 01110100
 117 01110101
 118 01110110
 119 01110111
 120 01111000
 121 01111001
 122 01111010
 123 01111011
 124 01111100
 125 01111101
 126 01111110
 127 01111111
$
```

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdint.h>
#include "print_bits.h"

int main(void) {

    for (int i = -128; i < 128; i++) {
        printf("%4d ", i);
        print_bits(i, 8);
        printf("\n");
    }

    return 0;
}