Computer Systems Fundamentals

#include <unistd.h>

int main(void) {
    char bytes[13] = "Hello, Zac!\n";

    // argument 1 to syscall is the system call number, 1 is write
    // remaining arguments are specific to each system call

    // write system call takes 3 arguments:
    //   1) file descriptor, 1 == stdout
    //   2) memory address of first byte to write
    //   3) number of bytes to write

    syscall(1, 1, bytes, 12); // prints Hello, Zac! on stdout

    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>

#define O_RDONLY 00
#define O_WRONLY 01
#define O_CREAT  0100

// cp <file1> <file2> with syscalls and no error handling
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    // system call number 2 is open, takes 3 arguments:
    //   1) address of zero-terminated string containing file pathname
    //   2) bitmap indicating whether to write, read, ... file
    //      O_WRONLY | O_CREAT == 0x41 == write to file, creating if necessary
    //   3) permissions if file will be newly created
    //      0644 == readable to everyone, writeable by owner

    long read_file_descriptor  = syscall(2, argv[1], O_RDONLY,           0);
    long write_file_descriptor = syscall(2, argv[2], O_WRONLY | O_CREAT, 0644);

    while (1) {

        // system call number 0 is read -  takes 3 arguments:
        //   1) file descriptor
        //   2) memory address to put bytes read
        //   3) maximum number of bytes read
        // returns number of bytes actually read
        char bytes[4096];
        long bytes_read = syscall(0, read_file_descriptor, bytes, 4096);

        if (bytes_read <= 0) {
            break;
        }

        // system call number 1 is write - takes 3 arguments:
        //   1) file descriptor
        //   2) memory address to take bytes from
        //   3) number of bytes to written
        // returns number of bytes actually written

        syscall(1, write_file_descriptor, bytes, bytes_read);
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>

int main(void) {
    char bytes[13] = "Hello, Zac!\n";

    // write takes 3 arguments:
    //   1) file descriptor, 1 == stdout
    //   2) memory address of first byte to write
    //   3) number of bytes to write

    write(1, bytes, 12); // prints Hello, Zac! on stdout

    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <fcntl.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    // copy bytes one at a time from  pathname passed as
    // command-line argument 1 to pathname given as argument 2
    int read_file_descriptor = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY);
    int write_file_descriptor = open(argv[2], O_WRONLY | O_CREAT, 0644);
    while (1) {
        char bytes[1];
        ssize_t bytes_read = read(read_file_descriptor, bytes, 1);
        if (bytes_read <= 0) {
            break;
        }
        write(write_file_descriptor, bytes, 1);
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>

int main(void) {
    char bytes[] = "Hello, stdio!\n"; // 15 bytes

    // write 14 bytes so we don't write (terminating) 0 byte
    for (int i = 0; i < (sizeof bytes) - 1; i++) {
        fputc(bytes[i], stdout);
    }

    // or as we know bytes is 0-terminated
    for (int i = 0; bytes[i] != '\0'; i++) {
        fputc(bytes[i], stdout);
    }

    // or if you prefer pointers
    for (char *p = &bytes[0]; *p != '\0'; p++) {
        fputc(*p, stdout);
    }

    // fputs relies on bytes being 0-terminated
    fputs(bytes, stdout);

    // write 14 1 byte items
    fwrite(bytes, 1, (sizeof bytes) - 1, stdout);

    // %s relies on bytes being 0-terminated
    fprintf(stdout, "%s", bytes);

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    FILE *output_stream = fopen("hello.txt", "w");
    if (output_stream == NULL) {
        perror("hello.txt");
        return 1;
    }

    fprintf(output_stream, "Hello, Zac!\n");

    // fclose will flush data to file, best to close file ASAP
    // optional here as fclose occurs automatically on exit
    fclose(output_stream);

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void show_file_state(char *message);

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    FILE *output_stream1 = fopen("hello.txt", "w"); // no error checking

    // hello.txt will be created if it doesn't exist already
    // if hello.txt previous existed it will now contain 0 bytes

    show_file_state("open(\"hello.txt\", \"w\")");

    fputs("Hello, Andrew!\n", output_stream1);

    // the 15 bytes in "Hello, Andrew!\n" are buffered by the stdio library
    // they haven't been written to hello.txt
    // so it will still contain 0 bytes

    show_file_state("fputs(\"Hello, Andrew!\\n\")");

    fclose(output_stream1);

    // The fclose will flush the buffered bytes to hello.txt
    // hello.txt will now contain 15 bytes

    show_file_state("fclose()");

    FILE *output_stream2 = fopen("hello.txt", "a"); // no error checking

    // because "a" was specified hello.txt will not be changed
    // it will still contain 15 bytes

    show_file_state("fopen(\"hello.txt\", \"a\")");

    fputs("Hello again, Andrew!\n", output_stream2);

    // the 21 bytes in "Hello again, Andrew!\n" are buffered by the stdio library
    // they haven't been written to hello.txt
    // so it will still contain 15 bytes

    show_file_state("fputs(\"Hello again, Andrew!\\n\")");

    fflush(output_stream2);

    // The fflush will flush ahe buffered bytes to hello.txt
    // hello.txt will now contain 36 bytes

    show_file_state("fflush()");

    FILE *output_stream3 = fopen("hello.txt", "w"); // no error checking

    // because "w" was specified hello.txt will be truncated to zero length
    // hello.txt will now contain 0 bytes

    show_file_state("open(\"hello.txt\", \"w\")");

    fputs("Good Bye Andrew!\n", output_stream3);

    // the 17 bytes in "Good Bye Andrew!\" are buffered by the stdio library
    // they haven't been written to hello.txt
    // so it will still contain 0 bytes

    show_file_state("fputs(\"Good Bye Andrew!\\n\")");

    // if exit is called or main returns stdio flushes all stream
    // this will leave hello.txt with 17 bytes
    // but if a program terminates abnormally this doesn't happen

    return 0;
}

void show_file_state(char *message) {
    printf("%-32s -> ", message);
    fflush(stdout);
    system("ls -l hello.txt");
}

#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc != 3) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <source file> <destination file>\n", argv[0]);
        return 1;
    }

    FILE *input_stream = fopen(argv[1], "r");
    if (input_stream == NULL) {
        perror(argv[1]);  // prints why the open failed
        return 1;
    }

    FILE *output_stream = fopen(argv[2], "w");
    if (output_stream == NULL) {
        perror(argv[2]);
        return 1;
    }

    int c; // not char!
    while ((c = fgetc(input_stream)) != EOF) {
        fputc(c, output_stream);
    }


    fclose(input_stream);  // optional here as fclose occurs
    fclose(output_stream); // automatically on exit

    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <fcntl.h>

// cp <file1> <file2> implemented with libc and no error handling
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    // open takes 3 arguments:
    //   1) address of zero-terminated string containing pathname of file to open
    //   2) bitmap indicating whether to write, read, ... file
    //   3) permissions if file will be newly created
    //      0644 == readable to everyone, writeable by owner
    int read_file_descriptor = open(argv[1], O_RDONLY);
    int write_file_descriptor = open(argv[2], O_WRONLY | O_CREAT, 0644);

    while (1) {

        // read takes 3 arguments:
        //   1) file descriptor
        //   2) memory address to put bytes read
        //   3) maximum number of bytes read
        // returns number of bytes actually read

        char bytes[4096];
        ssize_t bytes_read = read(read_file_descriptor, bytes, 4096);
        if (bytes_read <= 0) {
            break;
        }

        // write takes 3 arguments:
        //   1) file descriptor
        //   2) memory address to take bytes from
        //   3) number of bytes to written
        // returns number of bytes actually written

        write(write_file_descriptor, bytes, bytes_read);
    }

    // good practice to close file descriptions as soon as finished using them
    // not necessary needed here as program about to exit
    close(read_file_descriptor);
    close(write_file_descriptor);

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc != 2) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <source file>\n", argv[0]);
        return 1;
    }

    FILE *input_stream = fopen(argv[1], "rb");

    // move to a position 1 byte from end of file
    // then read 1 byte
    fseek(input_stream, -1, SEEK_END);
    printf("last byte of the file is 0x%02x\n", fgetc(input_stream));

    // move to a position 0 bytes from start of file
    // then read 1 byte
    fseek(input_stream, 0, SEEK_SET);
    printf("first byte of the file is 0x%02x\n", fgetc(input_stream));

    // move to a position 41 bytes from start of file
    // then read 1 byte
    fseek(input_stream, 41, SEEK_SET);
    printf("42nd byte of the file is 0x%02x\n", fgetc(input_stream));

    // move to a position 58 bytes from current position
    // then read 1 byte
    fseek(input_stream, 58, SEEK_CUR);
    printf("100th byte of the file is 0x%02x\n", fgetc(input_stream));

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <time.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc != 2) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <source file>\n", argv[0]);
        return 1;
    }


    FILE *f = fopen(argv[1], "r+");    // open for reading and writing

    fseek(f, 0, SEEK_END);             // move to end of file

    long n_bytes = ftell(f);           // get number of bytes in file

    srandom(time(NULL));               // initialize random number
                                       // generator with current time

    long target_byte = random() % n_bytes; // pick a random byte

    fseek(f, target_byte, SEEK_SET);  // move to byte

    int byte = fgetc(f);              // read byte


    int bit = random() % 8;           // pick a random bit

    int new_byte = byte ^ (1 << bit); // flip the bit

    fseek(f, -1, SEEK_CUR);           // move back to same position


    fputc(new_byte, f);               // write the byte

    fclose(f);

    printf("Changed byte %ld of %s from %02x to %02x\n",target_byte, argv[1], byte, new_byte);
    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>

void stat_file(char *pathname);

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    for (int arg = 1; arg < argc; arg++) {
        stat_file(argv[arg]);
    }
    return 0;
}

void stat_file(char *pathname) {
    printf("stat(\"%s\", &s)\n", pathname);

    struct stat s;
    if (stat(pathname, &s) != 0) {
        perror(pathname);
        exit(1);
    }

    printf("ino =  %10ld # Inode number\n", s.st_ino);
    printf("mode = %10o # File mode \n", s.st_mode);
    printf("nlink =%10ld # Link count \n", (long)s.st_nlink);
    printf("uid =  %10u # Owner uid\n", s.st_uid);
    printf("gid =  %10u # Group gid\n", s.st_gid);
    printf("size = %10ld # File size (bytes)\n", (long)s.st_size);

    printf("mtime =%10ld # Modification time (seconds since 1/1/70)\n",
           (long)s.st_mtime);
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>

// create the directories specified as command-line arguments
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    for (int arg = 1; arg < argc; arg++) {
        if (mkdir(argv[arg], 0755) != 0) {
            perror(argv[arg]);  // prints why the mkdir failed
            return 1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <dirent.h>

// list the contents of directories specified as command-line arguments
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    for (int arg = 1; arg < argc; arg++) {
        DIR *dirp = opendir(argv[arg]);
        if (dirp == NULL) {
            perror(argv[arg]);  // prints why the open failed
            return 1;
        }

        struct dirent *de;

        while ((de = readdir(dirp)) != NULL) {
            printf("%ld %s\n", de->d_ino, de->d_name);
        }

        closedir(dirp);
    }
    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>

// change permissions of the specified files
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc < 2) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <mode> <files>\n", argv[0]);
        return 1;
    }

    char *end;
    // first argument is mode in octal
    mode_t mode = strtol(argv[1], &end, 8);

    // check first argument was a valid octal number
    if (argv[1][0] == '\0' || end[0] != '\0') {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s: invalid mode: %s\n", argv[0], argv[1]);
        return 1;
    }

    for (int arg = 2; arg < argc; arg++) {
        if (chmod(argv[arg], mode) != 0) {
            perror(argv[arg]);  // prints why the chmod failed
            return 1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>

// remove the specified files
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {

    for (int arg = 1; arg < argc; arg++) {
        if (unlink(argv[arg]) != 0) {
            perror(argv[arg]);  // prints why the unlink failed
            return 1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>
#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc > 1 && chdir(argv[1]) != 0) {
        perror("chdir");
        return 1;
    }
    return 0;
}

#include <unistd.h>
#include <limits.h>
#include <stdio.h>
#include <string.h>

int main(void) {
    // use repeated chdir("..") to climb to root of the file system
    char pathname[PATH_MAX];
    while (1) {
        if (getcwd(pathname, sizeof pathname) == NULL) {
            perror("getcwd");
            return 1;
        }
        printf("getcwd() returned %s\n", pathname);

        if (strcmp(pathname, "/") == 0) {
            return 0;
        }

        if (chdir("..") != 0) {
            perror("chdir");
            return 1;
        }
    }
    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>

// rename the specified file
int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    if (argc != 3) {
        fprintf(stderr, "Usage: %s <old-filename> <new-filename>\n",
                argv[0]);
        return 1;
    }
    char *old_filename = argv[1];
    char *new_filename = argv[2];
    if (rename(old_filename, new_filename) != 0) {
        fprintf(stderr, "%s rename %s %s:", argv[0], old_filename,
                new_filename);
        perror("");
        return 1;
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <limits.h>


int main(void) {

    for (int i = 0; i < 1000;i++) {
        char dirname[256];
        snprintf(dirname, sizeof dirname, "d%d", i);

        if (mkdir(dirname, 0755) != 0) {
            perror(dirname);
            return 1;
        }

        if (chdir(dirname) != 0) {
            perror(dirname);
            return 1;
        }

        char pathname[1000000];
        if (getcwd(pathname, sizeof pathname) == NULL) {
            perror("getcwd");
            return 1;
        }
        printf("\nCurrent directory now: %s\n", pathname);
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <limits.h>
#include <string.h>

int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    char pathname[256] = "hello.txt";

    // create a target file
    FILE *f1;
    if ((f1 = fopen(pathname, "w")) == NULL) {
        perror(pathname);
        return 1;
    }
    fprintf(f1, "Hello Andrew!\n");
    fclose(f1);

    for (int i = 0; i < 1000; i++) {
        printf("Verifying '%s' contains: ", pathname);
        FILE *f2;
        if ((f2 = fopen(pathname, "r")) == NULL) {
            perror(pathname);
            return 1;
        }
        int c;
        while ((c = fgetc(f2)) != EOF) {
            fputc(c, stdout);
        }
        fclose(f2);

        char new_pathname[256];
        snprintf(new_pathname, sizeof new_pathname,
                 "hello_%d.txt", i);

        printf("Creating a link %s -> %s\n",
               new_pathname, pathname);
        if (link(pathname, new_pathname) != 0) {
            perror(pathname);
            return 1;
        }
    }

    return 0;
}

#include <stdio.h>
#include <unistd.h>
#include <sys/stat.h>
#include <sys/types.h>
#include <limits.h>
#include <string.h>


int main(int argc, char *argv[]) {
    char pathname[256] = "hello.txt";

    // create target file
    FILE *f1;
    if ((f1 = fopen(pathname, "w")) == NULL) {
        perror(pathname);
        return 1;
    }
    fprintf(f1, "Hello Andrew!\n");
    fclose(f1);

    for (int i = 0; i < 1000;i++) {
        printf("Verifying '%s' contains: ", pathname);
        FILE *f2;
        if ((f2 = fopen(pathname, "r")) == NULL) {
            perror(pathname);
            return 1;
        }
        int c;
        while ((c = fgetc(f2)) != EOF) {
            fputc(c, stdout);
        }
        fclose(f2);

        char new_pathname[256];
        snprintf(new_pathname, sizeof new_pathname, "hello_%d.txt", i);

        printf("Creating a symbolic link %s -> %s\n", new_pathname, pathname);
        if (symlink(pathname, new_pathname) != 0) {
            perror(pathname);
            return 1;
        }

        strcpy(pathname, new_pathname);

    }

    return 0;
}